Since 1970 the Italian archaeological activities in the Sudan have been sponsored by Rome University "La Sapienza", since this institution was at the time the only university in Italy to have a chair of Egyptology and to be interested in fieldwork in the Sudan. A few years ago, however, the Faculty which hosted the chair of Egyptology, along with other remarkable subjects engaged in Africa and the Near East, diversified its objectives. Eventually the chair of Egyptology was suspended, after the Director of its expedition in the Sudan, Prof. Alessandro Roccati, was appointed to a newly created chair of Egyptology at the University of Torino, thus allowing him to resume and maintain the fieldwork in the Sudan on behalf of the Centro ricerche archeologiche e scavi di Torino (CRAST) and to continue the research in the archaeological area of Jebel Barkal and to ensure the continuation of the team's activities. Otherwise a long period of experience and training would have been lost. This ensures that the present mission is the legitimate offspring of the preceding one and rooted in the same place – as it was already announced at the recent Warsaw Conference. On the one hand it was at Rome that the Tenth International Conference of the Society of Nubian Studies was held in 2002, and on the other hand it was at Torino that the International Exhibition of Nubian archaeology was displayed in 1999: both of them for the first time in Italy, and both of them under the responsibility of Prof. Alessandro Roccati. Furthermore we need not underline the importance borne for the study of ancient Egypt by the research on the Nile civilisations farther South.
Funds for the mission were granted by the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Centro Scavi of Torino. The team was composed of some already familiar participants: Prof. Alessandro Roccati (Torino University, head of the mission), Dr. Roberto Gozzoli (Torino University, historian), Dr. Grazyna Bakowska (Rzeszow University, Poland, archaeologist): and three newcomers to the Sudan, all of them trainees from the School of specialisation in Oriental Archaeology of Rome University "La Sapienza": Dr. Claudia Micari, Dr. Massimiliano Nuzzolo and Dr. Roberta Petrilli. They ensured the necessary backing for survey and documentation. The official appointed by the NCAM was Mr. Murtada Bushara Mohammed.
It must be stressed that the objective of our university mission is not only the acquisition of new results but also the training of young people. Teaching is as much as part of fieldwork as the exploration of an ancient site.
Actually the present campaign is the sequel of the fieldwork carried out between 26th November and 23rd December 2006 on account of our Mission, by a team of geologists led by Prof. Giorgio Martinotti of Torino University, who executed a surveying in the archaeological area of the Mission's excavations at Jebel Barkal. They were assisted by Dr. Grazyna Bakowska (Rzeszow University, Poland) and Dr. Maria Novella Sordi (trainee in the School of specialisation in Oriental Archaeology of Rome University "La Sapienza"), who also tried out the study of ceramics.
Our stay lasted from 12th February till 2nd March 2007, and our activity concentrated in the building labelled B2400 lying near the (ancient) road, while further exploration of the palace B1500 was reserved as a spare activity. In fact, although the main road has meanwhile been moved across the desert and it is no longer a threat to the archaeological area, we wanted to achieve the knowledge of a rather interesting structure we came across during a protective operation of the monuments. Owing to a thin layer of rubble covering the floor, and the reduced surface of B2400, we aimed at getting a general layout of its structures within the limited time span at our disposal.
This building arose on a square platform, but it had become completely invisible on the ground, so to be traversed twice in recent years by the enclosure wall around the antiquities area built by the NCAM (which one day should be removed). Its special interest was awakened by some remains of a Greek architecture standing on it (more pieces were found this year), which may provide a terminus post quem for its dating. However, it was already overlaid in the antiquity by a well paved road in North-South direction, which points to a rather early destruction. Its lack of particular decorations (the walls were not plastered nor painted), its coarse entrance (the only one hitherto clearly detected is from the West) plead for an earlier date with reference to B1500 (the so called "Natakamani's palace"). However some typical potsherds and vessels show that the area was in use during the Meroitic period. A small fragment of pottery carved with some Meroitic signs found this year provides even inscriptional evidence.
One main achievement of this year's digging has been the discovery of a rather well preserved access from the North, in line with what was interpreted as a central court followed by a peristyle court. The much decayed condition of what was expected to be an eastern entrance has now been related to the creation of the paved road, which would have rendered such a passage devoid of use. This observation raises the question of a possible contemporariness of this paved road with the building of a Greek architecture – behind which, to the South, no passageway existed according to a careful search made in a previous campaign.
If these conclusions could be maintained, in view of the basic destruction of everything over the platform, we should consider the possibility that the platform was conceived for an earlier building. That building was later completely dismantled, so as to leave barely the platform in order to host some peculiar architecture, such as a Greek edifice. Nevertheless this older building can only belong to the (early) Meroitic period, due to its construction features, with outer walls lined with red bricks. A new mapping of the area by means of a satellite photograph points out also a parallel location with B100, another building likewise from the (early?) Meroitic period, which was excavated by Reisner in 1916. We owe the copies of Reisner's journal to the kindness of Prof. Timothy Kendall, who has already cooperated with our Mission on more than one occasion.
The new access, which was cleared to the North of B2400 is smaller than the one found on the western side, and it shows a (smaller) terrace abutting the middle of that side, ending in a short ramp perpendicular to the palace's wall, at the end of which a stone threshold lay. These features imply that this entrance was also roofed.
Although some of these features – three entrances of different size in the middle of every side of the platform - are shared by the more recent B1500 (Natakamani's palace), currently dated to the middle of the first century A.D., the latter stands out for its central and imposing position in the front of the sacred mountain. This building was much more elaborated and had equal access staircases instead of ramps. The staircase on its western side, however, was not visible from the plain and was not perpendicular to the palace's wall: it descended next to the wall in direction of B500 (Amun temple).
In B2400 the apparent parallelism between its access from the North and the close by paved road is to be stressed. At any rate, the main access - already of the former building - seems to have been the one to the West, namely the one looking towards the Palace of Natakamani. We expect to reach some better understanding of the entire layout through the tracing of (foundation) walls, which were duly recorded. Some soundings showed that the original floor next to the palace's outer wall looked like a pebbly ground.
The excavations were accompanied by the careful choice and documentation of ceramics uncovered in the different sites where the Italian Mission has been operating at Jebel Barkal. The material has been collected for several years, and at present we are organising a team for its encoding by means of informatisation. Sound results will require a longer time of study and comparison. However a provisional evaluation of forms and painted patterns refers to a period from the second century B.C. to the first century A.D. and possibly later, at least with reference to corresponding evidence from Meroe. Two reversed jars, still with their original contents of bones and some burnt material, were buried in the ground beside the eastern red brick wall closing the middle court and a mud brick wall bordering the paved road. Their location was next to each extremity, i.e. respectively South and North, of the wall.
When we arrived, we found that some heavy storms of last year had broadly damaged many restorations carried out in the excavated buildings, and these needed a number of repairs. These were operated as a by-work of the Mission also thanks to the kind collaboration of the appointed Official, Mr. Murtada. Some workmen of ours gave also a hand to cut the bushes invading the archaeological area in front of the Museum.
Finally we must assess that the friendly mood affecting the relations with the Sudanese Authorities as well as with the local people, either workmen or neighbours, has much contributed to ensure a good result of a difficult enterprise in a rather short time. May they all receive the heartily felt thanks of our entire team.
LA MISSIONE ARCHEOLOGICA IN SUDAN
Appendix: report on pottery examined
The pottery examined was found during the 2004-2007 seasons, during which two structures were being uncovered – named as B2400 and B2200.
B2200
Within the B2200 building there were mostly wheel-made ceramic pieces, some fragments of handmade ceramics were also found. About 6-7% of all finds were decorated sherds, mostly painted; less frequently they were some incised and stamped. The majority of the sherds were dated between 2nd century BC and 1st century AD.
Forms:
Fragments of cups, bowls, plates, saucers, stoppers, lids, beer jars, globular jars, pots, vases, bottles, amphorae, oil lamp, bread moulds and burners.
Motifs:
Offering-table, Hathor's emblem, rosette, ankh-sing, lotus-flower, upright leaves, connected circles, palm-branch, vine wreath, trefoil, twisted cord guilloche, stars, triangular geometric motifs, striped style.
B2400
Pottery sherds found enclosed in the building walls and floors, and other fragments spread throughout the surroundings of the building itself could be dated to the Meroitic Period (some ceramics can be dated between 2nd and 1st century BC, while other pottery in this case out of context could be dated between 1st and 3rd century AD). Moreover, some forms seem to go back to the Napatan Period.
There were wheel made and handmade ceramics pieces. In comparison with the B2200 structure there were very few painted ceramics, while incised and impressed pottery was predominant.
Forms:
Fragments of cups, bowls, dishes/plate, saucers, stoppers, lids, storage jars, globular jars, pots, basins, vases, amphorae, bread mould, klepsydrai.
Motifs:
Human figure, Lion (Apedemak), bird, ankh-sign, vine wreath, rosette, criss-cross.
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The Italian Archaeological Expedition in the Sudan 2007 (by Torino University)
Underwater Archaeology: Excavations in Viet Nam
By Dr. Nguyen Dinh Chien (Chief Curator of National Museum of Vietnamese History-Ha Noi)
During the last decade of the 20th century, there were several ancient wrecks that were found in Viet Nam. Among those, the following five wrecks surveys and recoveries are especially remarkable.
I. Five ancient shipwrecks excavated in the sea of Vietnam.
1. Vung Tau ancient wrecks (1690)
In June 1990, the wreck Vung Tau, which was approximate to 15 km far from the Hon Cau Island at 40 m depth water beneath the sand of 0.6m to 1.0 m was recovered. Viet Nam Salvage Corporation (Visal) was licensed to collaborate with the Swedish Company Hallstrom Holdings Oceanic using the America driving equipment and divers from America, British, Canada, Viet Nam to recover the wreck. Until July 1991, the recovery was finished. The wrecks of 32.71m long and approximately 9m wide was measured and drawn by the divers. Thousand of artifacts were recovered from the wreck. Most of them were Chinese porcelains dated back to 1690 (1). The key archaeologist who participated during the projects was an Australian, Mr. Michael Flecker.
2. Hon Dam ancient wreck (15th century)
In May 1991, the wreck in Hon Dam – Phu Quoc Island (Kien Giang province) was recovered. This was ancient wreck which Jeremy and Rosemary Harper mention in seminar on porcelain held in Hong Kong in 1978 (2).
Visal recovered the wreck base on its experiences accumulated from the Vung Tau wreck project. The wreck lied at the over 40m depth. Some parts of the wreck were burried under approximate 2m sand. It was measured at about 30m long and 7m wide. The artifacts above the surface of the wreck were curdled in big blocks by oyster. There were about 16.000 pieces of celadon and brown porcelains recovered in the wreck. The most special ones were the port shaped bowls with segmented open rim of 38cm diameter and weighted 03kg. The specialists assumed that those porcelains were made by the Sawankhalok’s Kiln (Thailand) in the 15th century (3). The recovery was participated by the Vietnamese divers and two key archaeologists Michael Flecker (Australian) and Warren Blake (New Zealand).
3. Cu Lao Cham ancient wreck (15th century)
From May 1997 to July 1999, the wreck in the sea of Cu Lao Cham Island (Hoi An – Quang Nam province) was surveyed and archaeologically excavated. The wreck at the 70-72 m deep. The National Museum of Vietnamese History, Visal and Saga Horison (Malaysia) were performed the excavation. The Chairman of the Excavation Committee is Dr. Pham Quoc Quan, Director of the National Museum of Vietnamese History. There were also many archaeologists from Oxford University (England), Kebangsan University (Malaysia), Czechoslovakia and many divers and crew from Viet Nam, Malaysia, England, Indonesia, Singapore, Australia, New Zealand... The excavation showed tracks of a wreck of 29.4 m and 7.2m wide with 19 berth and spaces. Wood of wreck hull was fairly good. Some tenons on some bulkhead beams were still quite firm. Over two hundred thousand artifacts were recovered in the wreck . Most of them were made in Chu Dau – Hai Duong province – Vietnam in the 15th century.
Besides, this excavation was attended by foreign saturation divers and Director of Operation is Mr. Ong Soo Hin – Director of Saga Horizon and the Bound Mensun – The Director of the Archaeology who is the Director of the Marine Research Department of London University Oxford – England.
4. Ca Mau ancient wreck (1723 – 1725)
From August 1998 to October 1999, the National Museum of Vietnamese History, Visal and Museum of Ca Mau performed the archaeological excavation of the wreck in Ca Mau . The Chairman of the Excavation Committee is Dr. Nguyen Dinh Chien- Chief Curator of the National Museum of Vietnamese history.The excavation was headed by the archaeologists of the National Museum of Vietnamese history through diving operation of Visal’s divers who have an international certificates 3.I.U. The wreck was in the sea depth of 36 m with some obscure tracks of 24m long and about 8m wide. More 60 thousands of artifacts were recovered. Most of them were blue and white glaze porcelains and multicolor painted glazed ones and were made in China. Inscriptions in blue on the base of some bowls and cups indicates that they were made during the Yongzheng reign (1723–1725). The project had been especially done by only Vietnamese divers under supervision of the Vietnamese archaeologists. In 2002, the excavation result was reported in the book with title “ The Ca Mau Shipwreck- 1723- 1735” .(4)
5. Binh Thuan ancient wreck ( 16th – 17th century)
From 2001 to 2002, the wreck in the sea of Binh Thuan province was surveyed and archaeologically excavated. The National Museum of Vietnamese history and Visal performed the excavation. The chairman of the Excavation Committee is Dr.Nguyen Dinh Chien, Chief Curator of National Museum of Vietnamese History. The excavation showed tracks of a wreck of 23.4 m long and 7.2 m wide with 25 berths and spaces. Over 60 thousands of artifacts were recovered. Most of them were blue and white glaze porcelains and multi-colour painted glazed ones and were made in China. Origin of goods carried on board the ship from Jingdezhen, Jiangxi province; Dehua kiln complex, Fujian province and Guangzhou kiln complex, Guangdong province.
The ship and cargo are dated to the late 16th to early 17th century, the same of Wanli reign of late Ming dynasty. The excavation results were noticed in the scientific report by Dr. Nguyen Dinh Chien and Dr. Michael Flecker.(5)
II. Some experience in excavating and handling the artifacts of ancient shipwrecks.
1. Pre-excavation:
Most of the wrecks were accidentally found by fishermen while fishing. Therefore, it is needed to have further proper surveys to clarify the nature of the wrecks. Then to complete the relevant procedures as well as to arrange the excavating equipment.
• Arranging the personnel for the project as archaeologist, divers, conservators logisticts, guards of the site…
• Close circus television including diving masks KMB, underwater communications, diving control and video.
• Grids and sticks to set on the surface of the wreck.
• Space and instruments to wash the artifacts from sand and mud; package to transfer artifacts to the storages on shore.
• Form for analysis, statisticts of the recovered artifacts.
• Spaces and instruments for conservation, desalination, restoration and making scientific archives of recovered artifacts, which must be well treated numbered before taking the final classification. All artifacts data will be computerized under management and administration softwares.
2. Process of the underwater archaeological excavation:
• After the arrival of the means, which carrying personnel and equipment for the excavation at the site, the means will anchor over the wreck position. Based on the diving report the archaeologists will set up a core line as an azimuth for coordinates by connecting some visible parts of the wrecks such as beams, masts…Then the perpendicular aluminum grids with each side of 02 m long will be fixed above the wreck and having sides parallel to the core line and marked by rags.
• The excavation operation will be routinely arranged between the archaeologists and divers. Through the close circus camera with masks KMB 17 and the underwater communications, the diver masters will help archaeologists in the Excavation Committee to supervise and check up on the drives for the effect of air lists or the recovery of artifacts.
• At the depth of 35-40 m, we apply the air surface supply diving method. At the sea level below 4-5, every day we can operate 6-7 diving shifts, each two divers. The total diving time of one shift is 45 minutes (including time for decompression). Every diving shift will be followed up by log books with the video to their activities.
• The archaeologists will supervise the excavation through the monitors, to note what happening underwater and on board, especially concentrating on the drafting draws of divers, discussing and deciding which grid will excavated next.
• After the artifacts being pick up and put to baskets and lifted up, the archaeologists will initially classify and pack artifacts in the rubber baskets, which numbered and covered by nylon nets. Those baskets then will be put in to the sea water tanks waiting for transferring to the storages on shore or to the archaeologists barges. The delivery of these baskets must enclose the artifacts forms for the following up and statistics of artifacts in each grid, with name of divers, diving shift, date, people making notes and description.
• The sea usually has big swell at the sea level of 4-5 at the depth of 72 m in April 1999; we applied the saturation diving method. Following to this way, there were 2 shifts, 11 hours a shift (working time of 22 hours a day). The divers get up the grids, using air lifts, recovering the artifacts, putting into numbered rubber baskets and to the big steel baskets which could contain thousands of artifacts. Then the crane lifted up the steel basket to the barge. The archaeologists and workers washed the artifacts and numbered them and then put them in to the plastic tanks which were numbered too. The artifacts of each type were chosen and numbered, taken photograph, technically drown. With the recovery, the recording and drawing of the site were also undertaken usually.
3. Onshore post excavation
Big tanks or rubber tanks with fresh water were used to contain the artifacts for a number of days. Then the water was checked by the solution AgNO3, HNO3 and the desalinated equipment. When the saltiness was finished, artifacts were dried. Then the conservators recorded the result using the form NO6/TCCM.
• Chipped artifacts after begging put in the separate nylon bags, they were washed, cleaned and then restored by clue UHU or PVA. The separated parts of artifacts needed to be restored (boxes of two parts, kettle with lid and spout, handle...)
• The artifacts in the baskets after had been treated and completed the desallation were classified, numbered and noted in the following forms:
B4/TCCM: Condition form.
B5/TCCM: Dimension and photograph form.
B6/TCCM: Conservation form.
B7/TCCM: Artifacts (see annex) data sheet.
• Took photographs and technical drawing of the shapes and design of artifacts...
• The computerization of the data from the above forms with photographs and technical drawing help the archaeologists to recognize the disposition and the density of artifacts and the situation of the site. Based on the above mentioned matters, the archaeologists will answer the questions related to the wrecks such as dating back of the wreck, ship-owner art value…
• From the study result of the wreck, the archaeologists will make a scientific report with full of drawings of the site, typical kinds, ornamental objects, designs of decorations, video tapes of the survey and excavation. It will then be promulgated as a studying book and exhibited.
*
Viet Nam is a country of over 3,000 km shoreline, lying on the international trading marine road. Form the early day, Vietnam created an economy and culture liaison with the other countries in the world. Underwater archaeological excavations in Vietnam through above five projects could be considered as the potential initial steps. Even though this work is new with our archaeological activities, but we have a lot of chances to share our underwater archaeological excavation experience with other countries. The recent excavations have proved the successful co-operation between us with organizations and specialists in the world for Vietnamese underwater archaeology.
The five ancient wrecks in Vietnam were archeologically excavated, specially the wrecks at Cu Lao Cham, Ca Mau and Binh Thuan. This will contribute more information to study process of the international marine road as well as the trading liaison at Vietnamese sea during the past centuries.
Note:
(1). Christie’s Vung Tau Cargo, Amsterdam 1992. Nguyen Quoc Hung: Excavation of the Antique Treasure at the Sea Bottom Hon Cau (Vung Tau) – Archaeology Magazine Issue N03 – 1992 (page 62- 73).
(2). M. Roxanna Brown. The ceramic of South East Asia. Their Dating and Identification – Kualalumpur, Oxford University Express, 1997.
(3). Pham Quoc Quan and Nguyen Quoc Hung: Thai Ceramics at the Wreck in Phu Quoc- Kien Giang. Culture and Art Study Magazine Issue N01 (108) – 1993 (page 66- 67)
(4). Nguyen Dinh Chien: The Camau Shipwreck 1723 – 1735. Hanoi, 2002.
(5). Nguyen Dinh Chien and Michael Flecker: The Scientific Report on Binh Thuan Shipwrecks. Ha Noi, 2003.
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The Archaic of Thailand (Part II)
The second day of our trip started in Kanchanaburi, where we headed north towards U-Thong, another Dvaravati site. Before we got there, though, we turned down a small side road until we came to a school with a small building off in the corner.
The small building turned out to be a museum, however it was locked. The key was, fortunately, with a person at the school on the same grounds. It turns out that there had been an excavation, and a small museum had been erected to house the artifacts found. Unfortunately, it is unclear just who is responsible for the museum, so it has not been kept up very well. However, we were able to handle some amazing artifacts that the man from the school simply handed around. One was a bracelet approximately 2,000 years old. While the decrepit state of the facilities was lamentable, the opportunity to be that close to history was incredible.
We next traveled to U-Thong. Like many Dvaravati sites, it was surrounded by an irregular moat. The ruins of this chedi (above) were actually on the outside of the moat, surrounded by urban development (as it probably had been for centuries). There is more to be discovered here, but most of it is occupied by squatters, making it difficult to access.
The museum at U-Thong is very much worth the visit. I was doubly impressed because they allowed us to take photos. They have excellent examples of Dvaravati art, including some incredible rare bronze Buddha statues.
Continuing on our tour is like moving forward through the centuries. In Suphanburi, the moat around the old city is almost rectangular, much like later moated cities. Wat Pra Si Rattana Mahatat was once the central temple of the complex, with a Khmer style prang still visible at the back of the current temple complex. Much of the complex relief work can still be seen on the visible plaster.
While at Wat Pra Si Rattana Mahatat, we were fortunate to be able to view an ordination ceremony--one of the happiest moments in a man's life. The entire community comes together for these festivals, and it is a joyous occassion. This parade was traveling clockwise around one of the temple buildings--I believe it was the viharn. The ordination candidate was being carried around beneath a large umbrella, throwing out candy and lucky coins (little 1 Baht coins with a ribbon tied on).
We continued our journey to two temples: Wat Pratu San and Wat Makham No. These temples both contain excellent examples of Lao, Thai, and Chinese influences in the murals all along the inside walls. The primary artist was a displaced Lao brought back from wars in the east in the late 18th, early 19th centuries. He was brought here to work, where he found his brother was also working nearby. Together they both created works that are still admired today.
Our last visit was to Wat Pa Lelai Worawihan, an ancient temple still in use. Much of the temple is new or reconstructed--including this seated Buddha which was built where, it is believed, an ancient Buddha statue once sat. It is, today, one of the most recognizable symbols of this region, and draws a plethora of pilgrims and tourists at all times of the year.
Carved into the plaster of the walls to either side were this monkey and elephant, reverencing the Buddha. These two animals are apparently a common symbol in Buddhist temples.
With nothing more on the itinerary, we returned to Bangkok and the modern world. This has truly been an incredible trip, and I am sure you will here of many more in future posts.
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Losari Temple, Indonesia (Part II)
With only a finding that perwara temple is small it makes the team's research, whether in the surrounding areas there is still another temple, or only a single temple. To answer the problems in the year 2008 conducted research stage II. This research is still working with the Foundation as Tahija donors. Based on the experience of years ago to reduce the obstacles in the implementation of the activities - especially the number of water in the rainy season - the phase II study was conducted during the dry season. Research was conducted over 20 days from the date of 5 to 28 August 2008.
However, in the implementation of this research, Archeology Center of Yogyakarta does not stand alone, because there are various institutions that competent on this site. Therefore, in the research reveals Losari Temple Sites Phase II, also involves a variety of institutions, such as: District of Magelang - in this case the Office of Culture and Tourism of Magelang Regency - as the most competent as the owner of the location of the site and as the parties that will take advantage of the existence of the Losari Temple site. Involvement of Culture and Tourism Office Regency of Magelang also supported by the Culture and Tourism Office Province of Central Java. Central Conservation ancient heritage of Central Java based on the basic tasks and functions very competent to save, preserve and restore the Losari Temple. Department of Archeology at the Faculty of Cultural Sciences of Gadjah Mada University as an institution of great academic competent to develop the science through research, notably with the discovery of the new site.
Central Conservation ancient heritage of Central Java with the cost of the installation itself has been doing re-roof the perwara temple's components that had been found. With the discharged of the roof then the temple has been back to the original habitat. Although not perfect yet, because there were some stones of the roof of the temple had not been found yet, especially the top of it, but the form of the temple has begun to appear vertical. The research team of Archeology Center of Yogyakarta supported by students and lecturers of Archeology at Department of Archeology at the Faculty of Cultural Sciences of Gadjah Mada University started the excavation. The involvement of students and lecturers of Archeology is funded by the Office of Culture and Tourism of Central Java, who is also finance the making of the film about Losari Temple.
It is not easy to dig up the excavation boxes because the land is very hard. It takes perseverance, patience, and hard work to be able to reveal Losari temple. Not necessarily for the digging to get the results expected. The first five failed to get results, although the determination of the location of the box has been using geoelectric survey. Failure is not sour and discourage the members of the research team. Boxes in the new lay out and began to be extracted one by one. Apparently they do not struggle vain, in the box on the P22 depth 145 cm appeared a piece of stone cross north-south, that is the bottom of the relief from the usual. The findings are part of the threshold on the second perwara temple. It has raised new hope to be able to find other temples (the third perwara temple and the main temple).
Finally, one by one the parts of the main temple and the perwara temple start to appear. After the second (middle) perwara temple started to show the door entrance, the third (south) perwara temple also began to appear, but the front of the dogs already. Temple perwara third (south) is found in the P28 and P30. Estimated the third perwara temple has the same size. After the third perwara temple was found then the main temple could be found more easily. It is usually located in front of the middle perwara temple. The part of the main temple began to be found, the first stone temple ruins found in the P29. After the box had been dug deeper and eventually extended to the south then the wall structure of the building was found. It was the body wall of the main temple in the east of the entrance of the left temple. On the wall is found mahakala relief, one of the gods guard the entrance of temples. Besides the P31 found in the structure of the body wall of the main temple or the back of the west main temple and the temple on foot. With the two sides found the body temple and the top of the foot temple temple parent's area can be estimated. Body temple is squares shaped with an estimated 360x360 cm² width, while the foot temple is 500x500 cm² width. So the problems have been solved, Losari temple is a Hindu temple, which consists of a main temple and 3 perwara temples. That have not been found successful in this research is the surround fence.
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The Archaic of Thailand (Part I)
Siam Society trips are organized around Asia and elsewhere, and can be simple daytrips to 3 week tours. There, we can get a chance to visit the ruins of an ancient 6th century civilization, and handle a 2,000 year old bracelet.
The first ruin was the ruins of Wat Phra Men in Nakhon Pathom. Likely built in the 7th century in the Dvaravati style, it was later abandoned, along with the rest of Nakhon Pathom. The four seated buddha statues that would have adorned four alcoves in the central prang, or tower, appear to have been moved to other temples. Bricks were later taken to rebuild the chedi or Wat Phra Pathom, and much of it was looted by robbers. Still, a considerable amount of artifacts were uncovered by archaeologists in the early 20th century, but they were removed from the site and now reside at various museums.
We went to Chula Pathon Chedi, near the center of the old moated city of Nakhon Pathom. There were actually two Pathon Chedis--this was called 'Chula' because it appears to have been much smaller than 'Phra' Pathon Chedi. It has been built and rebuilt several times, and the additions, usually extending the base, can clearly be seen in places. While researching this chedi, a series of bas reliefs were found that had survived the ages--some had been covered by later additions, while others had been simply been covered with dirt and sediment over the centuries. This is still an active archaeological site, and there had been a dig going on only a week before we had arrived.
Phra Pathon Chedi has long been in use, but only recently 'discovered'. The old structure was covered in earth and hidden, and only the new prang-style chedi at the top was visible. Excavations have uncovered the actual brickwork, and in some instances you can clearly see where the newer brick was laid over the old.
Our last stop in Nakhon Pathom was Wat Phra Pathom, one of the oldest Buddhist sites in Thailand and now one of the tallest chedi in the world. The current structure was actually built by King Rama IV, and is built over the old chedi, like a shell. Because of its size, engineers had to build a slight slope into the rising walls to support the weight, and beneath it all are support beams linked with a giant iron chain to help spread the load evenly in all directions. This is one of the most visited pilgrimage sites in Thailand, and it houses a museum of archaeological artifacts from around the region.
We continued up the road to Pong Tuk, in the Tha Maka district. This unassuming site, with its remains of a laterite brick structure, has yielded some important--if potentially controversial--finds for the understanding of Thai history. One such find are these:
They have been called 'stone bells', and have been hung like this for display. Some archaeologists--our guide among them--posit a different theory. You see, in the 6th century, much of inland Thailand was actually part of a large bay. Slowly the bay silted up through deposits left by the rivers flowing in from all sides. In its day, however, there would have been major shipping lanes throughout what is now inland Thailand. Charting out the various Dvaravati sites on top of this extended bay, one sees that most of them sit along the edges of the water--likely for the obvious purposes of fishing and trade. These large stones, left over when the waters receded, were likely boat anchors, similar to ones found in the Mediterranean. The concept of drilling a hole through a stone and then using it as an anchor or anchorage point is not new, and may explain these large stones.
This was also the site where archaeologists found a rare Roman or Byzantine lamp (experts disagree, though the 6th century Byzantine provenance seems much more likely, in my opinion). Apparently it was found in two separate pieces by villagers, who didn't Together with evidence such as 3rd century Roman coins, marked with Victorinus, it shows the extent of trade in the early centuries of the first millenium. We saw a replica of the lamp in the treasure storeroom of a nearby temple.
Our final destination on the first day is at Prasat Muang Singh, in the modern province of Kanchanaburi. After passing through one more archaeological site and museum at Ban Kao we hit the westernmost outpost of the Angkorian Khmer Empire of Jayavarman VII. Built in the Angkorian style of laterite stone during the 13th century, it was probably built to express the power of the Khmer kings on their western frontier.
King Jayavarman VII spread Buddhism to all corners of his empire, and is responsible for perhaps building more Buddhist temples of the Khmer style than any other king. It was not, however, an entirely altruistic gesture, for Jayavarman VII used himself as the model for the statues of the Buddha which he sent out. Thus, he used these constructions to express his power and rule throughout his kingdom.
While Khmer structures often used laterite, the buildings in Angkor, at the heart of the kingdom, covered most exposed sections in carved sandstone. The structure at Prasat Muang Singh was more likely covered in plaster. The relief above would have been the rough carving, with the plaster used to create a more detailed image. I would guess that plaster would have been cheaper--being on the edges of the empire, it would not be expected that the king would exert as much time or resources. This is shown in tremendous detail with a later structure behind the main complex:
While Khmer structures were usually very symmetrical, this later structure shows obvious errors, with many of the rooms being offset slightly--possibly due to an error on the part of the engineers. Such lapses are probably indicators that the knowledge of the building techniques were being lost on the fringes of the empire, corresponding with a general decline in the Khmer empire's power in the outlying regions. Soon, the local Thai people--the Siem or Siam--would begin to carve out their own kingdoms in places like Ayutthaya and Chiang Mai.
That evening we returned to Kanchanaburi, to a hotel on the Kwai river--yes, the one from the movie. The famous bridge was just down the river (Ellen went down to get the shot the next morning). From there we headed up to U-Thong and Suphanburi, but that will have to wait for another post...
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4,300-Year-Old Queen's Tomb in Egypt
The 4,300-year-old monument is believed to be the tomb of Queen Sesheshet, the mother of Pharaoh Teti, the founder ancient Egypt's 6th dynasty.
Once nearly five stories tall, the pyramid—or at least what remains of it—lay beneath 23 feet (7 meters) of sand.
The discovery is the third known subsidiary, or satellite, pyramid to the tomb of Teti. It's also the second pyramid found this year in Saqqara, an ancient royal burial complex near current-day Cairo.
"I always say you never know what the sands of Egypt might hide," said Zahi Hawass, secretary general of Egypt's Supreme Council of Antiquities (SCA).
"This might be the most complete subsidiary pyramid ever found at Saqqara," added Hawass, who is also a National Geographic Society explorer-in-residence.
Surprise in the Sand
Archaeologists also found remnants of a white limestone casing for the surviving, 16-foot-tall (5-meter-tall) pyramid base. The angle of the base helped them determine that the pyramid's walls stood at a 51-degree angle.
Based on that angle, the team determined that the pyramid was originally 46 feet (14 meters) tall and about 72 feet (22 meters) square at its base.
The researchers were somewhat surprised to find a pyramid at the Teti site, since they thought the area had been thoroughly searched. Archaeologists had already found subsidiary pyramids for Teti's two principal wives Iput I and Khuit, about a hundred years ago and in 1994, respectively. Teams have been digging in the area for more than 20 years. "One hundred years ago they used to take sand and put it in unexcavated areas," Hawass said.
"The archaeologists in the past used this area as a location for the sand. No one could think there is anything here."
Tomb robbers, however, had known the pyramid was there—archaeologists found that a shaft had been created to allow access to Sesheshet's funerary chamber.
Due to those assumed tomb raids, archaeologists don't expect to find Sesheshet's mummy when they reach the burial chamber weeks from now. But they do anticipate finding inscriptions about the queen, whose name, perhaps coincidentally, evokes the goddess of history and writing, Seshat.
Mother Love
Starting from the 4th dynasty (2616 to 2494 B.C.), pharaohs often built pyramids for their wives and mothers.
"Mothers were revered in ancient Egypt," said Salima Ikram, a professor of Egyptology at the American University in Cairo, who was not involved in the discovery.
"Building pyramids for one's mother in her dead state … was fairly emphasized in the whole vision of kingship that the ancient Egyptians had," Ikram said.
"That was something that was instituted during [a pharaoh's] lifetime and was a very public way of expressing his debt to her, his connection to her, and her importance in Egypt politically and as a symbol for kingship."
Sesheshet's son Teti might have been more motivated than the average pharaoh to pay homage to his mother. Sesheshet had come from a powerful family and probably supported his ascendancy to the throne during turmoil at the end of the 5th dynasty.
"She's one of the important ladies at that time," said Hakim Haddad, general director of excavations in Egypt.
"At the end of the 5th dynasty and the beginning of the 6th dynasty, there was a conflict between two branches of the royal families."
The American University's Ikram added, "I assume Teti thought it would be a good plan to make his mother a pyramid."
Regardless of Teti's motivations, SCA director Hawass says the newfound pyramid is special because of its association with a female ruler.
"You can discover a tomb or a statue, but to discover a pyramid it makes you happy. And a pyramid of a queen—queens have magic."
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"Crown" of Alexander the Great
Researchers said that an ancient Greek tomb thought to have held the body of Alexander the Great's father is actually that of Alexander's half brother.
This may mean that some of the artifacts found in the tomb—including a helmet, shield, and silver "crown"—originally belonged to Alexander the Great himself. Alexander's half brother is thought to have claimed these royal trappings after Alexander's death.
The tomb was one of three royal Macedonian burials excavated in 1977 by archaeologists working in the northern Greek village of Vergina.
Excavators at the time found richly appointed graves with artifacts including a unique silver headband, an iron helmet, and a ceremonial shield, along with a panoply of weapons and an object initially identified as a scepter.
"[Archaeologists] announced that the burial in the main chamber of the large rich [tomb] was that of Philip II, father of Alexander the Great, who was assassinated in 336 B.C," said Eugene N. Borza, professor emeritus of ancient history at Pennsylvania State University.
But recent analyses of the tombs and the paintings, pottery, and other artifacts found there, suggest that the burials are in fact one generation more recent than had previously been thought, Borza said.
"Regarding the paraphernalia we attribute to Alexander, no single item constitutes proof, but the quality of the argument increases with the quantity of information," he said.
"We believe that it is likely that this material was Alexander's. As for the dating of the tombs themselves, this is virtually certain."
Tomb Mystery
The original excavation at Vergina was led by Manolis Andronikos, an archaeologist at Greece's Aristotle University of Thessaloniki who died in 1992.
His team found the first tomb to be a simple stone box containing human remains identified as a mature male, a somewhat younger female, and a newborn.
Tomb II, a large vaulted tomb with two chambers, contained the remains of a young woman and a mature male. Tomb III, with two vaulted chambers, was the resting place of a young teenager, most likely a male. Both of the larger tombs contained gold, silver, and ivory ornaments, as well as ceramic and metal vessels.
"[Andronikos] presented his theories [that the tombs were those of Alexander's father and his family] with great skill, and the Greek nation responded with fervent enthusiasm," Borza said.
"Indeed I was one of those who, in two early articles in the late 1970s, accepted Andronikos' view that the remains were those of Philip II."
Borza started to doubt Andronikos' conclusions, however, as he studied the evidence.
He contacted Olga Palagia, an art historian at the University of Athens, to evaluate the tombs' construction, pottery, and paintings.
Soon the duo realized the significance of the fact that Tomb II and Tomb III were built using a curved ceilings called barrel vaults.
"The earliest securely dated barrel vault in Greece dates to the late 320s [B.C.], nearly a generation after the death of Philip II," Borza told National Geographic News.
Palagia also found that paintings on the exterior frieze of the tomb reflected themes that were likely from the age of Alexander the Great, rather than that of his father.
The paintings depict a ritual hunt scene with Asian themes, suggesting influences resulting from Alexander's extensive campaigns to the east.
Treasures
The six-foot (two-meter) scepter found at the burial site is another clue, Borza added.
"We have several surviving coins issued in his own lifetime showing Alexander holding what appears to be a scepter of about that height," he said.
Additionally, a number of silver vessels discovered in Tomb II and Tomb III are inscribed with their ancient weights, which use a measurement system introduced by Alexander the Great a generation after Philip II's death.
"Once we have determined on archaeological grounds that Tomb II is a generation later than Philip II's death, we can then ask, Whose tomb is it?" Borza said.
"We have a double royal burial from this era attested in the ancient literature. Thus the tomb is that of [Alexander's half brother] Philip III Arrhidaeus and his queen, Adea Eurydice."
Borza and Palagia discussed their new analysis at the meeting of the Archaeological Institute of America in January. Their findings will be published in a forthcoming study from the German Archaeological Institute.
Most of the ancient artifacts found at Vergina are on display today at a museum at the site of the tombs.
Death of Alexander
Alexander died of disease in ancient Babylon, near modern-day Baghdad, Iraq, in 323 B.C.
His generals appointed Philip III to take his place, and the half brother claimed Alexander's royal objects as public symbols to solidify his power, historians suggest.
Alexander's son, Alexander IV, who was appointed joint king along with Philip III, was assassinated around 310 B.C. He is likely buried in Vergina's Tomb III, which contains the remains of a young teenager, Borza said.
Historically, the only known Macedonian royal teenage burial is that of Alexander IV, he explained.
Alexander's father, Phillip II, is buried in Tomb I, along with his wife and their infant, according to Borza.
"Tomb I is from the age of Philip II—unlike the big chamber tombs, which are later—and the human remains of the three burials accord well with the assassinations of these individuals."
Winthrop Lindsay Adams, a professor of history at the University of Utah who was not involved with the study, said Borza's work builds on what other specialists have thought about the various aspects of the Vergina tombs.
The work of Borza and his colleagues convincingly make the case that Tomb II is the final resting place of Alexander's half brother, Adams explained.
"Indeed for most scholars working in fourth-century Macedonia, the original attribution by Andronikos now seems doubtful," he said. "This case is convincing."
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Pyramid Built by Newfound Ancient Culture
Archaeologists first found the objects about 15 years ago in the valley of Tulancingo, a major canyon that drops off into Mexico's Gulf Coast.
Several stone sculptures recently found in central Mexico point to a previously unknown culture that likely built a mysterious pyramid in the region, archaeologists say.
Most of the 41 artifacts "do not fit into any of the known cultures of the Valley of Tulancingo, or the highlands of central Mexico," said Carlos Hernández, an archaeologist at Mexico's National Institute of Anthropology and History in the central state of Hidalgo.
Many of the figures are depicted in a sitting position, with their hands placed on their knees.
Some have headdresses or conical hats with snakes at the base, which could represent Ehécatl-Quetzalcóatl, the Aztec god of the wind. One figure shows a man emerging from the jaws of a jaguar.
The sculptures are also made of flat stucco—a combination of fine sand, lime, and water—and painted blue or green to the give the appearance of jade.
All of the artifacts date to the Epiclassic period between A.D. 600 to 900.
Some Mexican and foreign archaeologists have said the sculptures weren't ancient and thus false, Hernández said.
"But by linking all the characteristics that make them different, [such as their location in Tulancingo and time period], allows us to say that they should be considered as a product of a different culture [called Huajomulco]."
The culture is named after an area in Hidalgo.
Baffling Pyramid
Some of the artifacts were also found near the mysterious Huapalcalco pyramid in Hidalgo, whose origin has been a source of debate among archaeologists. The pyramid's proportions, along with smaller structures that were painted black and white, do not correspond to the Toltec or Teotihuacan cultures of the same area and time period. The Teotihuacan people, who lived from 400 B.C. to A.D. 700, constructed one of the largest pyramid complexes in the pre-Hispanic Americas, which refers to cultures that lived on the continent before the Spanish conquest of the Western Hemipshere.
The Toltecs, who came afterward, were made up of several groups of South Americans that together formed an empire famous for its artists and builders in the Teotihuacan capital of Tula from A.D. 900 until the 1100s.
The pottery found at the site—rough, cylindrical vessels that are gray and reddish-brown in color—is also not familiar to experts.
Based on the artifacts' discovery near the pyramid,"it is likely that the Huapalcalco pyramid has been built by people from this new culture," Hernández said.
Thomas Charlton, an archaeologist at University of Iowa, has worked in the state of Hidalgo.
He said that ample evidence—including the new artifacts—links a new pre-Hispanic culture to the Huapalcalco pyramid.
"It's a reasonable hypothesis [that] near the Valley of Tulancingo, there is a site that looks like it existed between the fall of the Teotihuacan and the beginning of the Tula [Toltec]," Charlton added.
"We know that there's an occupation [from this time] near Tulancingo.
"After the Teotihuacan, there were all sorts of smaller states throughout Mexico. It's part of the cycle after the fall of an empire."
Creative Era
Michael Smith, an archaeologist at Arizona State University, agreed.
"The notion that there would be an independent culture in [the Epiclassic] period is not surprising at all," he said.
"It was a very creative period, with rich development."
Future excavations of Huapalcalco should solidify the link to a new pre-Hispanic culture, and help archaeologists glean clues about this lost time, Hernández said.
"The [Epiclassic] period is considered a time of dynamic development—new trade, cities, and development," said Arizona State's Smith, "but one we don't know much about."
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Losari Temple, Indonesia (Part I)
The temple was buried under the very hard ground in the valley southwest of Merapi mountain. No one knows - at least until early 2004 - that there was a temple under the salak plantation in Losari village, even though the land where salak plantation is known as a bow-rice field temple. Perhaps the field would be the story that was told from generation to generation which was not meaningful if Muhammad Badri - owner of the land - did not find the temple stones in 2004.
When Muhammad Badri assisted by his neighbors were creating an irrigation channel to irrigate rice fields in the surrounding areas. They made a channel which was not too wide nor deep through the middle of his farm. In the middle of the digging, suddenly they found some pieces of temple stones. After they dug deeper, they found more stones. The digging finally reach the structure of a building that was still neatly arranged with a square hole in the middle of it. Muhammad Badri did not dare to work more.
The news about the discovery was heard by the research team of Archeology Center of Yogyakarta who had been doing a research in the temple of Singo Barong Site (Mantingan Site) in 2005 - 2 km northwest of the temple Losari site. Site hen reviewed, first team visited Muhammad Badri's house. When the teams were invited to the site, they knew that the stones in Muhammad Badri's house were the roof of the temple that was taken from the building structure. The structure of the building were still intact from the legs to the body temple. Only the roof that were already disclosed.
In 2006 there was a bid from a private foundation in Jakarta, the Tahija Foundation, to finance the activities of Archeology Research Center in Yogyakarta. Accidentally that time Losari temple site has not been proposed to be inspected, because of limited of government funds. And in fact there are many resources such as archaeological artifacts, sites, and areas that have not been examined and managed well because of limited funds, energy, and time. Therefore, the role of the private sector in research and management of archaeological resources may be one of the alternatives. Then Losari temple would be one of the proposed research when the bids from the private sector came.
January 2007 occurred cooperation Temple Losari research phase I of the Foundation with the Central Jakarta Tahija Archeology Yogyakarta. Tahija as the foundation of the funds, while the Archeology Center of Yogyakarta as the executor. In the implementation of the Archeology Research Center in Yogyakarta also involve experts from various other institutions, namely: Central Conservation ancient heritage of Central Java, Department of Archeology at the Faculty of Cultural Sciences Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta, Central Investigation and Development of Technology of Volcanology of Yogyakarta, and of course the Office of Culture and Tourism District Magelang.
In the phase I study conducted for 20 days, 15 boxes of excavation had been successfully opened. The excavation done with trench techniques by following-lane alley in the range of Salak tree. The use of trench technique that can be expected to reduce or minimize the damage of salak farm caused by the activities of excavation.
Research stage 1 only found a small temple which was estimated as the Perwara temple. The Perwara temple was excavated to 4 m depth from the surface. This temple is Hindu religious background, which appeared from the corner of the roof of temple decoration in the form of Ratna (gem). Hindu temples are usually comprised of a main temple, in front of it there are three perwara temples and is surrounded by fence. If the main temple facing east, then the perwara temple facing west, to the contrary, if the main temple facing west then the perwara temple facing east. The perwara temple that already found was facing west, so the possibility to the main temple was facing east. However, it was unknown the position of perwara temple. North, central or south? It was just one perwara temple found.
to be continued...
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An Archeological Excavation in the Nile River
For the first time, the Nile River will be the subject of an archeological excavation. An Egyptian archeological team affiliated with the Supreme Council of Antiquities will track down the locations of the river’s ancient sunken treasures.
Alaa Mahrous, director of the underwater antiquities department in Alexandria, told Daily News Egypt that the team of archaeologists headed by Dr Zahi Hawass, director of the Supreme Council of Antiquities, has selected the Nile to be the subject of their search. The river has not been excavated to date.
“The survey will cover the area between the quarries in Aswan and Abydos. Over the centuries this was a significant area — either for the ancient Egyptians or the many rulers of the country who followed,” Mahrous explained.
“The granite quarries were located in Aswan. The statues and obelisks used to be cut and shaped in the mountains before they were shipped to Luxor and Abydos.”
The team hopes to find any pieces that might have went down while being loaded on unloaded from ships. “It is also possible to discover shipwrecks as many huge boats sank along with their load which consisted of statues, pottery and merchandise. We also have information regarding two small obelisks that settled in the river bed 10 km off Luxor as they were being shipped to Cairo by Maspero.”
Mahrous pointed out that, fortunately, the geography of the Nile hasn’t changed, especially in Upper Egypt. In addition, the river’s alluvial mud is a protective agent. Unlike the seawater that erodes the wood, the mud protects all kinds of artifacts.
“But I would like to stress again that this will be only a survey to locate the site of the antiquities. Recovering them will follow at a different stage,” noted Mahrous, who described how state-of-the-art technology will be used in the survey.
“This includes a sizeable rubber boat that has been provided with special facilities for accommodating and protecting the survey tools,” said Mahrous.
“Our survey tools will consist of the ‘side scan sonar’ that reveals the artifacts buried under the river bed, the ‘Bommer’ that penetrates the mud and sand found in the depths of the river as well as the GPS that is used in pointing out geographical locations, a tool that will prove effective in spotting the artifacts’ exact locations,” the official added.
“We will be able to read the results immediately, because the sonar is also connected to a computer on board, which will show images of what stands on the river bed or what is buried under the mud.”
“The GPS will guide us through several geographical locations,” Mahrous added. “In the case of an object being discovered, our team of divers will swim down to examine it, ensuring it isn’t a significant monument that would be missed.
“But a small dive as this isn’t as easy as some think. To dive in the Nile you also have to deal with strong winds, the high density of the river water and intensity of alluvial mud that, within seconds, can turn the surroundings into dark recesses.”
Based on the information relating to this survey, the ensuing stages will be decided.
“But we aim to carry out a survey of all the locations of sunken antiquities countrywide, a plan that will take us years of hard work.”
The Nile bed in Luxor and Aswan, pictured above, is expected to contain well-preserved antiquities
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ABOUT bodrum, Turkey
Today Bodrum is considered the Saint Tropez of Turkey and is one of its most attractive tourist resorts. Once the ancient city Halicarnassus (the birthplace of Herodotus), Bodrum was the site of the Mausoleum of King Mausoleus, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. Two millennia later the Knights of St. John built a magnificent Crusader Castle which today is the centerpiece of the modern town. After the fall of the castle during the reign of the Ottoman Turks Bodrum declined and a hundred years ago was a small isolated village, still important because it was the center of the sponge diving industry along the Turkish coast.
Rediscovered some twenty years ago Bodrum is now one of the most popular tourist destinations on the western coast of Turkey and is the center of gullet charters down the famous ‘Mavi Yolculuk’ (Blue Highway). In addition to being fully restored Crusader Castle the Bodrum Kale today is the world’s premier museum of ancient shipwreck archaeology. The five shipwrecks on display include one of the ten most important archaeological finds of the past century, a Bronze Age shipwreck which sank 3,300 ago and was discovered by Turkish sponge divers in 1984.
Opposite Bodrum is the Greek island of Kos where Hippocrates was born in the 5th century BC. The impressive remains of the large medical center he established there have been partially restored.
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Salmon Ruins: Past, Present, and Future
By Paul F. Reed, Center for Desert Archaeology
A Chacoan outlier was built on the northern bank of the San Juan River around A.D. 1090. Chaco Canyon, the heartland of the Chaco world, lies 45 miles to the south of this 250-room pueblo, now known as Salmon Ruins.
This three-story pueblo had a tower kiva in its central portion and a great kiva in its plaza (see map, page 2). Subsequent occupation by the local San Juan, or Totah (a Navajo word for "between rivers" first used by Wolky Toll and Pete McKenna to describe the archaeological region around Farmington, New Mexico), populations resulted in extensive modification of the original building. These San Juan folks used approximately 200 room spaces; created multiple subdivisions of original large, Chacoan rooms; and placed more than 10 kivas into formerly square rooms and plaza areas. The occupation of Salmon Ruins between A.D. 1090 and 1280 is well established by dendrochronology, archaeomagnetic dating, and ceramic cross-dating. The site was placed on the New Mexico State Register and the National Register of Historic Places in 1970.
Excavations were conducted at Salmon between 1970 and 1978, under the direction of Cynthia Irwin-Williams, of Eastern New Mexico University, Portales. Approximately 30 percent of the site was excavated by field school crews, paid professionals, and local volunteers. In all, more than 700 individuals participated in the fieldwork. Concurrent with the field operations, laboratories were operated on the premises to wash, catalogue, and rough sort artifacts and samples. More than 1.5 million artifacts and samples were recovered from the site. In 1980, Irwin-Williams and co-principal investigator Philip Shelley compiled and edited a five-volume final report for the funding agencies (the National Science Foundation, National Endowment for the Humanities, and Four Corners Regional Commission, among others). Although comprehensive and voluminous, the 1980 report had a very limited distribution; only 100 copies were produced, mostly for universities and research libraries.
In late summer 2001, the Center for Desert Archaeology and the Salmon Ruins Museum, which opened in 1973, began a three-and-a-half-year partnership to make a major reinvestment in this remarkable archaeological resource. A key element of the program initiated at Salmon Ruins, as part of the Center's Heritage Southwest Program, is to bring to fruition the great research effort put forth by Irwin-Williams and her staff during the 1970s. A major thrust of the research effort is a new look at Salmon Pueblo, not only as a Chacoan outlier, but in its regional San Juan context as well. Publication of a synthetic volume and supporting technical volumes is the primary goal of the Salmon Ruins project. As a preservation archaeologist at the Center, I will be coordinating this effort at the site over the next few years.
A second aspect of the partnership between the Center and Salmon Ruins is addressing the curation and preservation needs at the museum. When the San Juan County Museum Association and the people of San Juan County established the museum facility 30 years ago, they demonstrated a strong commitment to caring for the collections and materials recovered during the scientific investigations at Salmon Ruins. Now though, the effects of time - coupled with changes in curatorial standards - require the massive collection of artifacts, samples, and analytical data stored at the Research Center and Library be properly conserved. Toward that end, the Center is supporting a conservation and curation initiative for the Salmon Ruins collections. The Center has committed to raising the funding necessary to purchase the curation materials needed to re-house the entire collection. The Center's donation of $5,000 in November 2001 marks the start of this initiative. The project is being undertaken as a volunteer effort directed by association board member and local archaeologist Lori Reed (see page 6).
The research and curation initiatives will integrate with, and further stimulate, other programs at Salmon Ruins. In particular, long-term stabilization of Salmon Ruins and the Salmon family homestead is essential for continued high-quality visitor experiences and maintaining research values. The education program will benefit from new research results, which can be shared through museum exhibits, tours, and expanded public outreach activities.
In this issue of Archaeology Southwest, the past, present, and future of Salmon Ruins are explored: its past as the earliest and largest Chacoan outlier; its present as a prime example of community-based archaeology; and its future as a participant in the Heritage Southwest program, which will bring us closer to meeting our research and preservation goals.
Articles Include:
- Larry L. Baker: Salmon Ruins, A Vision with a Mission
- Alton James: A Brief History of the San Juan County Museum Association and Salmon Ruins
- Lynn Teague: Cynthia Irwin-Williams: A Profile
- TristanKwiecin: Public Education and Outreach
- Lori S. Reed: Salmon Collections Preservation
- Paul F. Reed: Salmon Ruins: From Cynthia Irwin-Williams's Vison to a Central Place in the Totah
- Larry L. Baker: Ruins Stabilization and Preservation
- Linda Wheelbarger, Totah Archaeological Project
- Lori S. Reed: Ceramic Studies in the Totah Area
Tulum
Main temple at Tulum against the blue sea.
Tulum (sometimes called Tuluum) is the site of a Pre-Columbian Maya walled city serving as a major port for Cobá. The ruins are located on the east coast of the Yucatán Peninsula on the Caribbean Sea in the state of Quintana Roo, Mexico. One of the best-preserved coastal Maya sites, it is today a popular site for tourists.
Tulum Ruins
View from the temple at Tulum. 
The main building at the Tulum ruins.
Ruined palace, Tulum.A number of the buildings have fresco murals on the interior (small remaining traces of paint suggest that the exterior of some buildings may have been similarly decorated). The murals show Mixtec influence.
The city was first mentioned by Juan Diez, part of Juan de Grijalva's expedition of 1518. The first detailed description of the ruins was published by John Lloyd Stephens and Frederick Catherwood in 1843 in the book Incidents of Travel in Yucatan. The site is of moderate size, with construction of modest sized buildings.
Tourism
Main temple at Tulum, by Catherwood.The archaeological site is relatively compact (compared with many other Maya sites in the vicinity), and is one of the best-preserved coastal Maya sites. Its proximity to the modern tourism developments along the Mexican Caribbean coastline (the so-called "Riviera Maya," surrounding Cancún) has made it a popular destination for tourists. Daily tour buses bring a constant stream of visitors to the site. The Tulum ruins are the third most visited archaeological site in Mexico, after Teotihuacan and Chichen Itza. It is popular for the picturesque view of the Caribbean and a location just 120 km south of the popular beach resort of Cancún.
The tourist destination is now divided into three main areas: the archaeological site, the pueblo or town, and the "hotel zone," or strip of beach lined with small cabanas.
Tulum Pueblo
Temple of the Frescoes (foreground) and El Castillo (background).Several years ago, Tulum Pueblo was a quiet village 2 km from the archaeological site, and tourism outside of the ruins was limited to a few small shops and simple cabanas on the beach. As of 2005 population of Tulum Pueblo has grown to over 10,000 permanent inhabitants. The "hotel zone" of boutique hotels on the Tulum beach has grown to over 40 small hotels, most of them cabanas built in the traditional Mayan style with thatched palm roofs. The hotel zone is mostly filled with tourists whereas Tulum Pueblo is mostly a Mexican town, with some tourists eating in the restaurants and bars at night. Inexpensive cabanas with hammocks are also available.
References
Vogel, Susana (1995). Guide of Tulum, History, Art and Monuments. Ediciones Monclem. ISBN 968-6434-29-1
External Links
* Tulum - Mayan Mystery - A video from the archaeological site at Tulum.
* Map of the Maya Ruins in Tulum
* Mexico Satellite - Satellite map view of the Maya Ruins in Tulum
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